'Space is a high technology sector, which development is relatively recent (1950s) and brings new services to our societies -in the military field as much as in the I&T or the environmental fields.'

Abstract
A new military competition is born in space. All the great powers, and especially China, know that in this field lie the force and the weakness of the United States: hence Beijing's attempt—symbolized by the tests in 2007—to develop anti-satellite weapons. In such a context, the US must try to keep advantage and refuse disarmament agreements, which would harm only them: this is the price of its national security.

James A. LEWIS is Head of the Technology and Public Policy Program au Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).

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Abstract
Thanks to new financing capacities freed by the state budget, there is a rebirth of Russian space. The 1990s have however seen Russia lose very largely its eminent positions in space technologies. And the current restructuring strategy, aiming at giving back to Russia its position, seems incomplete: no true privatization or opening to foreign capital corresponds with the concentration in holdings. Its results could therefore be uncertain.

Andreï IONINE is a former researcher at the Russian/USSR Ministry of Defence and a corresponding member of the Tsiolkovski Russian Cosmonautic Academy.

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Abstract
The European space policy develops in various institutions, with different focuses (European Union, European Space Agency, etc.). The recent experience with the two programs taken in European Union's framework (Galileo and GMES) seems to argue in favor of a more exigent structuring, likely to represent a true European concerted strategy in the space field. For Europe, this is a major issue of power.

Florence AUTRET, is a corresponding journalist in Brussels for Agefi and Télégramme and a teacher at IEP Paris.

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Abstract
The control of space has established itself as a great French ambition in the 1950s and 1960s. The country has won an eminent position in Europe, multiplying civil and military co-operations, in which France held a central role. The French leadership is however contested, and the European Union itself intends to become a space actor. Because of this double evolution, France should redefine its needs, its strong points and the modalities of its co-operations.

Laurence NARDON is Head of the Space Program at Ifri and a teacher at IEP Paris.

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'Since 1999, Algeria and Morocco are engaged in internal reconciliation experiments modelled on the South African process. These experiments aim at re-creating links between citizens, but also between citizens and their governments. The interrogations about the necessity of forgetfulness and forgiveness are central, as much as the question of the opportunity to judge (and the legitimacy of those who judge).'

Abstract
The main task of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was to seek the "truth" about apartheid abuses, which was considered as a step towards reconciliation. The option for restorative justice is reflecting the political choice of the African National Congress (ANC), outreaching its hand towards its former enemy. Despite the absence of retributive justice, the TRC established innovative means in order to deal with the victims and the perpetrators.

Laetita BUCAILLE is an associated researcher at Centre d'études et de recherches internationales (CERI) and Centre d'études d'Afrique noire (CEAN), and a member of the Institut universitaire de France (IUF). She also is a teacher at Université Bordeaux 2.

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Abstract
The creation by King Mohammed VI of an Equity and Reconciliation Commission aims to shed light on the violence of the ″years of lead″ and to accompany the political opening of the regime. But the exclusive focus on the events and the victims, without assigning the responsibilities—notably of the state at the highest level—and the culprits, limits the impact of this process, which aims to change monarchy's authoritarian image.

Khadija MOHSEN-FINAN, is researcher at Ifri and a teacher at IEP Paris and Institut d'études de l'islam et des sociétés du monde musulman (IISMM-EHESS).

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Abstract
The reconciliation process—evolving from a policy of mercy to a policy of civil concord and then of amnesty—avoided any actual return on the 1990s civil war and its actors, any search of the responsibilities. Criticized for this reason almost everywhere in the country, the process can thus only fail to rebuild the collective imagination, made of shared images and events, which would be the only way to revive a violently broken social link.

Abderrahmane MOUSSAOUI is a teacher at Université d'Aix-en-Provence and researcher (CNRS/MMSH) at Institut d'ethnologie méditerranéenne et comparative (IDEMEC)

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Abstract
The enlargements of the European Union have been a true economic and political success, but are not popular in Europe. The next step may take time. A breakup between the European and NATO enlargement processes is likely, the Alliance already favoring the opening to Georgia and Ukraine. The separation, or the new rapprochement, of these two processes will depend on the idea that their members have of the role and the future of these two organizations.

F.Stephen LARRABEE is Head of the Corporation Chair of European Security at the RAND Corporation (Washington, D.C.)

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Abstract
Before any further enlargement, the EU will have to decide on the scope and substance of the institutional reforms in order to be able to continue financing its policies in a sustainable manner—with the budgetary aspects and the increased economic dynamism generated by accessions. One of the pillars of the enlargement strategy is conditionality. Good preparation by candidate countries facilitates their smooth integration. A closer link between progress in political reforms and the overall pace of negotiations has to exist.

Maurice GUYADER is main administrator at the European Commission and an associated teacher at Université Paris III Sorbonne-Nouvelle.

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Abstract
What are the implications of EU enlargement for the European security architecture and what are the implications of stopping it? ESDP is already defined by flexible integration and structured co-operation in several areas. That variable geometry is not only a sensible concept for constructing an effective and capable ESDP within the EU-27: including European Neighboring Policy countries in ESDP activities and missions is also a useful approach. It is thus also suitable for the revival of transatlantic burden sharing within NATO and for an improvement of EU-NATO relations.

Ralf ROLOFF, is Senior German Professor at the College of International and Security Studies (George C.Marshall European Center for Security Studies).

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Abstract
In the Western Balkans, only Croatia and the Republic of Macedonia are currently recognized as EU candidates. All the other states are still waiting for Stabilization and Association Agreements (SAA) or candidate country status. Firstly, the ethnical and religious mosaic of Balkans is described with a reminder of its tumultuous history, ending with the agony of Yugoslavia. Secondly, recent economic developments are outlined. Needs for large-scale support from the EU—a basic condition for future recovery—are finally emphasized and quantified.

Michel GASPARD, after a career beginning in France (Ministry of Finance, Planification, Equipment), has occupied since 1991 varied positions in the European Institutions (BERD, European Commission...). He is currently responsible for a European Agency project of technical assistance for the reconstruction of Serbia.

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