"70 ans: en 1936, l'Espagne était républicaine, la Tchécoslovaquie existait encore, la Russie était soviétique et l'Europe au centre du jeu... Que peuvent donc avoir en commun un numéro de PE de la fin des années 1930 et un numéro du début du XXIe siècle ? Il fallait, pour le savoir, recourir à une mise en scène des idées, ordonner entre hier et aujourd'hui un dialogue de thématiques et de compétences, une polyphonie mêlant plusieurs âges de la réflexion. Et découvrir -est-ce une surprise?- que beaucoup de problématiques, à défaut des solutions proposées, traversent ces âges."

Stanley HOFFMANN: Born in Vienna (Austria) in 1928, he has been living in France since 1930 to 1955, year of his nomination as Professor at Harvard. He is teaching Political Sciences and French Civilization. In 1968, he creates the European Studies Centre at Harvard, whose he has been President till 1995. At the moment of Raymond Aron's death, Stanley Hoffmann offered to Politique étrangère this contribution, paying a tribute to his international look of a cleaver and realist liberalism.

This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 4/1983.

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Abstract
The praxeological approach to international relations obviates the difficulty of defining a basically —and perhaps more and more— heterogeneous "international system," at least for the actors concerned. Specific international problems can thus be identified —regional crisis, nuclear proliferation, terrorism— and for which the states, still dominant on the international scene, can develop their cooperation.

Thierry de MONTBRIAL, is a Member of the "Institut de France". He has been professor of Economics at the Ecole Polytechnique since 1974 and chaired its Department of Economics between 1974 and 1992. He also holds the chair of Economics and International Relations at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers. He has published L'Action et le système du monde (Paris, PUF, 2003, 2e edition, 2006), Quinze ans qui bouleversèrent le monde, (Paris, Dunod, 2003, 2e edition, 2006), La Guerre et la diversité du monde (La Tour d'Aigues, Éditions de l'Aube, 2004) and Géographie politique (Paris, PUF, 2006).

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Abstract
The collapse of the Soviet Union has considerably changed the practice of international relations and has provoked ongoing theoretical debates. The Realistschool, dominant during the Cold War, has been reexamined by defenders of Transnationalism. Each theory allows, in its own way, an understanding of the world in which we live, and these theories must be seen more as tools of interpretation than as infallible dogma.

Pierre de SENARCLENS, Professor of International Relations at the University of Lausanne, Former Director of the Division of Human Rights and Peace (1980-1983), is currently Vice-President of the Council of the Swiss Red-Cross. His last book, published with Y. Ariffin, is: La Politique internationale. Théories et enjeux contemporains (Paris, Armand Colin, 2006).

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Richard COUDENHOVE-KALERGI (1894-1972), Philosopher, published, in 1923, a book which exposes his European Unity project, Paneuropa, and founded the Paneuropean Movement: the first congress has been living in Vienna in 1926 and called together 2000 participants. He had an influence on Aristide Briand's project of European Union at the 'Société des Nations' in 1929, and created, in 1948, in Gstaad, the Parlementary European Union. The same year, the Mouvement européen is founded, whose Coudenhove-Kalergi will be the Honor President. When this article is published, the Steel Pact is just signed between Germany and Italia (May 1939).

This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 4/1939.

Abstract
The future of the United Nations (UN) depends first and foremost on the great powers: which will emerge? What choices will they make? In every case-scenario, however, the United States maintains a central role: whether it preserves its supremacy and pursues its current policy of marginalizing the UN and international law, whether it adapts to the emergence of other centers of power, orwhether it comes to realize that its interest lies in reinforcing the UN.

Lakhdar BRAHIMI, Former Algerian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Former Special Representative of the General Secretary of UNO in Haiti, in South Africa and in Afghanistan, is Special Advisor to the General Secretary of United Nations since 2004. He has been Head of the Group of Studies under Peace Operations (Rapport Brahimi, 2000).

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Abstract
After independence, Africa developed a continental bureaucracy with low efficiency. The continent's marginalization in the 1990s has fuelled a new logic: the creation of the African Union, the development of sub-regional organizations, NEPAD, along with various other "bottom-up" integration processes. Perhaps Africa has reached the threshold of new types of organizations, dealing with cross-cutting issues by associating all actors, political or not.

Abdou DIOUF has been President of the Republic of Senegal since 1981 til 2000. He has turned his action into a multipartite policy, a liberalization of economy and a decentralization. In 2002, he became Secretary General of the International Organization of the Francophonie (OIF).

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Marcel MERLE (1923-2003)writes his thesis on the Nuremberg lawsuit. Most of his books insist on the need to not limit the international relations to the sole inter States relations and are interested in decolonization and in the rise of new actors. Author of Sociologie des relations internationales (1974), he initiated the study of new international relations. He became Head of the Institut d'études politiques (IEP) of Bordeaux (France), before teaching at the IEP of Paris and at the University of Paris I, where he is Professeur émérite. His last book is: La Politique étrangère (Paris, PUF, 2005). This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 5/1978.

Abstract
It is not easy to define the 'International Economic Justice'. Three approaches are presented here: a 'communautarist' one, a second that could be named 'internationalist liberal' and a 'cosmopolit' one. This last one, that aims to give justice to the poors of the whole world, dominates more and more the international debate, even within the action of institutions as the World bank or the International Monetary Fund.

Ethan B. KAPSTEIN holds the Paul Dubrule chair of Sustainable Development at INSEAD, where he teaches and conducts Research on economic globalization and its consequences, and Senior Research Associate at Ifri. His last book is: Economic Justice in an Unfair World: Toward a Level Playing Field (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2006).

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Abstract
In the last few decades, bilateral, multilateral, and regional agreements on arms control have witnessed remarkable development. Fundamental problems remain — on verification, withdrawal rules, or negotiation processes. Yet the entire process of arms control seems to have entered a deep crisis, first and foremost due to the USA's suspicion: only the rebuilding of trust will allow the process to continue.

Jozef GOLDBLAT, Former Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Research Programme of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), has received the GCSP (Geneva Centre for Security Policy) Award for his achievements in the field of international and human security (2006). Currently Vice-President of the Geneva International Peace Research Institute (GIPRI), he has published: Arms Control: the New Guide to Negotiations and Agreements (London, Sage Publications, 2002).

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Charles AILLERET (1907-1968): Resistance fighter and prisoner in a concentration camp, he commands, in 1951, special arms of the Army. In 1958, General Ailleret is Commandant interservice of special arms. In both cases, he is in charge of the development of the French nuclear arms till their first experimentation in 1960. He is the last Commandant of the French army in Algeria, and becomes in 1962 Chief of Staff of armies. He will organize the French come back of military elements from OTAN and will defend, in a famous text, a French nuclear defense 'tous azimuts'. General Ailleret, who dies in 1968 in a plane crash, is one of the first actors of the French nuclear theory.This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 1/1957.

Abstract
The American Generals' new recommendations on dealing with the Iraqi insurrection may well prove vain. Indeed, they show the reluctance U.S. policy-makers have in governing the invaded territories directly. Yet the means of a successful counter-insurrection are known. They are applicable in Iraq as well as elsewhere, but the refusal, on principle, to enforce them puts the occupier in a difficult position.

Edward N. LUTTWAK, Former Advisor for National Security Council, is Senior Fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, DC). He has published many books, as Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace, Revised and Enlarged Edition (Belknapp Press, 2002).

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Abstract
Long considered as not only legitimate but moreover desirable, war has lost substantial legitimacy after the two World Wars. The relative gain of legitimacy that followed the end of the Cold War —with the proliferation of humanitarian military operations— will not be sufficient to reverse this trend. It is even possible that the most dominant type of conflict today, civil wars, will also face a real decline.

John MUELLER, President of the Woody Hayes Chair of National Security Studies at the Mershon Center for International Security Studies, is a Professor of Political Sciences at the Ohio State University. He is a Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His last book is: Overblown (New York, Free Press, 2006).

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Bernard BRODIE  (1909-1978) is Professeur at Yale, Research Fellow at the RAND Corporation (1951-1966). Called the 'American Clausewitz', this major thinker ofnuclear strategies publishes in 1946 The Absolute Weapon, Atomic Power and World Order, the first global study on the atom and its role in the international actors' strategies. He will soon broaden his thinking to air strategies. In 1960, four of the five Members of UN Security Council have the bomb and the cold war threatens to turn itslef into a 'real' war.

This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 6/1960.

Abstract
The 9/11 attacks began the era of catastrophic terrorism. Since then, terrorism has evolved. New types of jihadists have emerged, due in part to the deteriorating situation in Iraq. Jihadism will almost certainly come to an end, but terrorism itself is probably here to stay. And the ever-broader proliferation of technology will bring smaller and smaller groups to acquire more and more destructive capabilities.Daniel Benjamin joins the International Security Program of the Center for Strategic and International Studies as a Senior Fellow (2001). He has published, with Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror (New York, Random House, 2002) and The Next Attack (New York, Henry Holt/Times Books, 2005).

Daniel BENJAMIN: former assistant at the National Security Council for transnational threats and counterterrorism, he joined the International Security Program of the Center for Strategic and International Studies as Senior Fellow (2001). He leads as well a journalist carreer and he is the author, along with Steven Simon, of The Age of Sacred Terror (New York, Random House, 2002) and The Next Attack (New York, Henry Holt/Times Bokks, 2005)

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Abstract
The range of possible threats and the social meaning of war have changed deeply in the past few years. In this new environment, we seem only able to formulate old strategies, modernized by technology. It is rather necessary to promote a concept of human security favoring the security of persons and communities rather than the interest of states. Such a concept cannot be dissociated from a development strategy, which also contributes to security.

Mary KALDOR is Head of the Centre for the Study of Global Governance at the London School of Economics and Political Science. She is Head of the Groupe d'étude sur les capacités de sécurité européennes, founded on the request of Javier Solana, who has wrote the Barcelona Report, A Human Security Doctrine for Europe (2004).

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Bernard CHADENET has served for the Energy Division of the World Bank, Head of projects and Vice-President of World Bank with Robert McNamara before working to straighten projects in trouble. He retires in 1980. World bank, whose the mission is initially to rebuild after le WWII, turns its action into an aid to poor countries in the 1970s, with financing development projects. It spread out its role in the global economic order. This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 2/1977.

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Abstract
Globalization and its consequences on trade and international finance have powerful effects on national economies. They favor the progression of emerging countries to the detriment of others Third World countries —forced to wait for emerging countries to outsource what they no longer intend to produce— and increase internal economic inequalities everywhere. These inequalities, as well as the migratory pressures, are urgent issues in this globalized world.

Pierre-Noël GIRAUD is a Professor of Economy at the École nationale supérieure des Mines of Paris. The subjet of his studies are the consequencies of Corporate Globalization, of industrialization of emergent countries and of durable development.

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Abstract
Assistance to donors'strategic national interests, assistance to a policy of growthand redistribution, enforcement of good governance: the Official DevelopmentAssistance (ODA) is a little bit of everything. Having become an important tool of public policy, the ODA must redefine its goals, its practices, the way it identifies those who benefit from it, and, more generally, its institutions.

Pierre JACQUET, Former Member of the Conseil d'analyse économique (CAE) and Former Director Assistant of Ifri, has been Editor of Politique étrangère (1992-2002). He is now Executive Director (strategy) and Economist in Chief of the Agence française de développement (AFD). President of the 'Sciences humaines, économie, gestion, finance' Department of the Ecole nationale des Ponts-et-Chaussées (ENPC), he teaches Global Political Economy.

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Jacques de LAROSIERE was born on 1929. Former student at the École nationale d'administration (ENA), he has been Treasure Director (1974-1978), and Generali Director of the International Monetary Fund(1978-1987). He was the Head of the Banque de France and of the Banque européenne pour la reconstruction et le développement (BERD). He is a Member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques. In the 1980s, the second petroleum crack took place, after the Iranian Revolution at the begining of the Iran-Iraq war. The world started wondering again about energy dependance and economic consequences of energy scarcity.

This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 3/1980.

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Abstract
The idea of an energy crisis is fuelled by some legitimate concerns —security of supplies, climate change—, and some groundless ones, be it the depletion of oil resources, the predatory nature of big oil companies, the link between energy prices and recession, or the role of the resources released by the producers. Many of these problems could be solved by a global market of increasing integration.

John BROWNE entered the British Petroleum Group in 1966 where he was successively in the Exploration, Production and Financial Departments, in the United States, in the United Kingdom and in Canada. He has been Executive Director of BP in 1991 and Group Chief Executive in 1995. He is the Non Executive Director of Intel Corporation too and of Goldman Sachs.

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Abstract
Based on the history of wine harvests, it is possible to develop a more general history of climate, particularly in Europe. This history — the alternating of warm and cool seasons — can also be related to the economic, and thus political, history of our countries, from the 14th century to the global warming of the 20th. The role of the meteorologist in understanding these structures is therefore crucial.

Emmanuel LE ROY LADURIE, Doctor Honoris Causa from 18 universities, he has been Professor at the École pratique des hautes études, at the Sorbonne, and at the Collège de France. Former Generali Administrator of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, he is Memeber of the French Institute. He has recently published Histoire du climat depuis l'an mil (Paris, Flammarion, 1983) and an Histoire humaine et comparée du climat en Occident in two volumes (Paris, Fayard, 2004-2006).

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Robert ROCHEFORT (1911-2005) is Advisor of Robert Schuman, when he is at the French Council (1947-1948) and at the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1948-1953). He participated to the creation of the Haut commissariat aux réfugiés (HCR) in 1951 and represented France at the United Nations Oraganization. Three years after the Brussels resolution which funds the first form of the Organisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM), this article analyzes the problematics of population of after-World War II, as the question of millions people whose the destoryed Europe seems not to be able to nourrish.

This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 2/1954.

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Abstract
From 1935 to 1970, sanitary revolution and economic progress produced a real demographic boom. The reversal of this trend was very fast, occurring as early as the 1950s, mainly in Third World countries. This may be the sign of a possible "second demographic transition." The decline of fecundity is general and the inversion of the population pyramid foretells a universal aging, probably implying major economic, social, and political problems.

Jean-Claude CHASTELAND has been working at the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED) and at the United Nations Organization, where he served from 1963 to 1991, as Head of Population Division. He specialized himself in the problems of the Third World population.

Jean-Claude CHESNAIS, has a PhD in Demography and in Economics. He is Lecturer at the École nationale d'administration (ENA) and at the Ecole polytechnique. Specialist of migrations issues, his works belong to History and to Sociology. Since 1985, he is Head of researchs at the INED.

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Abstract
The difference between immigration and emigration countries tends to disappear at the South of the Mediterranean. Whereas oil countries are becoming more restrictive towards immigration, many other countries are becoming receiving or transit countries of globalized immigration. Everywhere the problem of necessary policies is thus raised: at the international level, in order to regroup issues of emigration and immigration, and at the national level, in order to integrate new populations.

Philippe FARGUES, is Professor at the Institut universitaire européen of Firienza, and Director of the Euro-mediterranean Consortium for Research applied to international flows of population at the Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies. Specialist of the islamic world, he has published numerous scientific works.

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Louis MASSIGNON(1883-1962) first studied deals with the history of corporations in Fez (Marocco) at the XVth century. He spread his researches in the whole Mediterranean. In 1922, he passed his thesis –La passion d'Al-Hallâdj, martyr mystique de l'Islam–, which opened new fields of investigation for orientalism. Sociology and Islamic Sociography professor at the Collège de France since 1926, he has been Head of researches at the École pratique des hautes études in 1933 and becomes Advisor to the French ministries for Arabic issues.

This text has been published for the first time in Politique étrangère, n° 2/1952.

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Abstract
As the globalization's sphere grows, the differences grow simultaneously. Understanding and preserving cultural diversity are therefore imperative today, hence the necessity of developing genuine cultural policies, integrating the action of all actors: international organizations, states, civil society, and the private sector. Education and the preservation of heritage (in the wider sense) constitute without a doubt its most immediate stakes.

Koïchiro MATSUURA, Former Prime Secretary to Japanese Delegation in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), served for many years in the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs: in 1994, he represented Japan at the G7 Summit. In 1999, he was elected  Generali Director of UNESCO and his mandate was renewed for a second term office.

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Abstract
The religious factor is not welcome in Western social sciences, particularly in theories of international relations. Yet religion has not disappeared with the 20th century's secularization: it has merely adapted to a new environment. The religious factor is today broadly reappearing, encouraging theories of international relations to reintegrate it, particularly in the analyses of conflicting dynamics.

Jonathan FOX is Lecturer at the Political Studies Deprtment of Bar Ilan university (Israel). His works deal with civil and ethnical conflicts as with religion interactions onto international relations. His last book, published with S. Sandler, is Religion in World Conflict (Londres, Routledge, 2006).

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Abstract
Contemporary international culture is permeated with myths. Of these, three hold a particular place: universality, peace, and supremacy of the law. Myths can be salutary, on the condition that they are understood only as interpretations and not absolute truths. Ignoring this could hurt the West, creator and exporter of the international's main mythologies.

Chantal DELSOL, philosophy professor at Université de Marne-la-Vallée, she is the Head of the 'Contretemps' collection, editions la Table ronde. Author of many books, translated into many languages, her last philosophy essay is entitled: La Grande Méprise. Justice internationale, gouvernement mondial, guerre juste... (Paris, La Table ronde, 2004).

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